Since the beginning of September 2021, between fifty (50) and seventy (70) Pre-Columbian and early 20th-century musical instruments have been presented in the traveling exhibition ANCESTRAL SOUNDS, which has toured the departments of Guatemala, Sacatepéquez, and Quetzaltenango.
From July 25, 2025, it is open to the public at the headquarters of the La Ruta Maya Foundation in Guatemala City until the end of July 2026. With this exhibition, we began including the Kaqchikel language in the exhibition labels, highlighting the importance of the language of our ethnolinguistic region.
The collection includes whistles, ocarinas, various types of flutes, rattles, drums, conch shell trumpets, a wooden tunkul (a type of drum), polychrome vessels, molds, and clay figures of musicians, all under the care and custody of the La Ruta Maya Foundation. Also on display are polychrome vessels and figurines that allude to the performing arts or depict scenes of figures dancing or playing instruments.
It is our hope that the exhibition will travel throughout Guatemala to continue bringing the public closer to our Pre-Columbian cultural heritage, highlighting the creativity and technology involved in the manufacture and use of musical instruments.
Each display case includes QR codes that invite the public to scan to access short videos with additional information and to listen to the sound of the instruments. The foundation provides free internet access.
Music has always been a cultural expression shared by all ages and social classes. However, for ancient Pre-Columbian groups, including the Maya, its public manifestation occurred primarily during ceremonies or political-religious events. Public and private events attended by the nobility were enlivened with music. Musicians were very important figures in the royal court. In fact, they appear in scenes with kings and nobles in palaces, parades, and processions.
Although it’s impossible to know exactly what the original music of that era sounded like, it’s possible to intuit its sound thanks to archaeomusicology and the study of indigenous musical expressions that have survived in certain regions. Archaeomusicology (the study of ancient musical instruments) is the union of two disciplines: musicology, the study of the phenomenon of music, and archaeology, the study of humanity’s past using material remains.
Dance, as an expression intimately linked to music, is also part of the intangible performing arts. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on various sources that offer clues about musical performance in antiquity.
Some of these sources include ceramic art (scenes on painted vessels), mural paintings, codices, figurines, and the musical instruments themselves found in archaeological excavations. It is also important to examine indigenous sources and how the instruments were played, as well as to read the descriptions later made by Spanish chroniclers in this region.
A variety of images of musicians appear painted on ceramic vases and plates, as well as on multicolored murals that decorated the walls of important buildings. There are also examples carved into buildings and a variety of figurines and whistle-figures made of clay and other materials depicting musicians in action.
The Bonampak Murals (Chiapas, Mexico) depict scenes with nobles, warriors, scribes, musicians, and captives.
The bottom row features richly attired musicians playing wooden trumpets, turtle shells with deer antler drumsticks, and rattles or finger cymbals.
Photo: Courtesy of Dmitri Beliaev
The musicians played all kinds of instruments, and thanks to the work of archaeologists, epigraphers, and ethnomusicologists, it has been possible to identify and classify the instruments, their materials, and even the names of the artists.
Representations of Musicians
Musician playing a conch shell trumpet
Pacific Coast of Guatemala Late Classical (600-900) Reg. No. 1.2.144.1005
Photo: FLAAR
Whistle figurine with two musicians playing a drum and rattle
Highlands of Guatemala Late Classical Period (600-900) Reg. No. 16.2.5.1111
Photo by Jimmy Caal Estrada
Musician holding a gourd rattle
Pacific Coast of Guatemala Late Classic Period (600-900) Reg. No. 1.2.179.64
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
B. Musical instruments were considered divine vessels
The Maya and Aztec cultures present numerous and varied archaeological evidence of sound-producing artifacts, and their music depended on the types of instruments and their period.
Religious and political events were accompanied by music and dance. Musical instruments were considered divine objects and “were used to found cities, invest rulers, name towns and people, adorn themselves, sing poetry, hold celebrations and sacrifices, go to war, and honor the dead” (Luis Antonio Gómez, 2008).
There are two important points to consider:
a. Not all artifacts were musical instruments. Many were means of communication with natural entities (such as animal-shaped artifacts that mimic their natural sounds) or with supernatural entities (nawales or companion spirits).
b. There are three types of sound communication: i) utilitarian, ii) ritual, and iii) cultural.
Indeed, while the origin of musical instruments had mythological roots, the sound of the most sacred instruments was understood as the voice of the gods. There were even ceremonies for rain or warrior processions where conch shell trumpets were the preferred instruments. In other cases, music accompanied other performing arts such as dance and poetry.
Among the most commonly used instruments were drums, trumpets, and conch shells, which were especially prevalent in royal and military processions. It is also common to see images of hunters playing conch shells while carrying their prey and warriors when leading captives. The ceremony, and the music that accompanied it, were explicitly divided between social classes because certain musical instruments and their playing (or manner of playing them) were limited to the nobility. This was because some instruments were very elaborate and therefore more expensive and difficult to acquire.
Native Mesoamerican instruments are grouped into two major sets: wind instruments and percussion instruments, which include the following families:
Aerophones: These are what we know as wind instruments because they need air to produce sound. This category includes trumpets made of various materials, conch shells shaped like trumpets, whistles, ocarinas, flutes, etc.
Whistle with bat figure
Mesoamerica Classic Period (250-900) No. 1.2.179.26
However, it is known that the Maya also had flutes and trumpets made of wood and reeds. This category includes not only whistles, but also a wide variety of flutes and ocarinas. Ocarinas are
melodic musical instruments, meaning they have several openings (holes) that are covered with the fingers to change the notes. They can be oval (egg-shaped) or round.
Polyglobular flute
Highlands / Classic period (600-900) Reg. No. 1.2.159.96
The polyglobular ocarina is a special type of ocarina that has several globe-shaped resonating chambers connected to each other. Each globe can have its own set of holes, allowing for a greater variety of notes and a wider musical range.
Polyglobular ocarina shaped like a dog
Classic Period (250-900) / Pacific Coast Reg. No. 1.2.144.811
Membranophones: those that include the stretched skin of animals to emit sound, such as most drums: arm drum, cylindrical drum and hand drum.
Ceramic drum with a face and incised decoration on the back.
Leather or other tightly stretched material was placed on top, and it was held with the legs or under an arm.
Pacific Coast of Guatemala Early Classic Period (ca. 400 CE) Cultural Property Registry No. 1.2.1.307
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
Polychrome hand-held drum. A large, polychrome, hand-held drum with a composite silhouette,
featuring a globular resonating chamber, shoulder, and a long neck or pedestal with an everted rim.
It is decorated across its entire surface with 10 figures identified as musicians and dancers.
It is the only drum IN THE WORLD with figures, hieroglyphic texts, and the logogram for “drum”.
Probably northern Alta Verapaz Late Classic (600–900) / Reg. No. 1.2.179.0155
Idiophones: these are the ones that make sound when their own body vibrates or those that emit sound when struck by something or by elements within themselves.
Wooden tunkul
Verapaces Region Classic Period (250-900) Reg. No. 16.2.5.181
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
Ceramic rattle
Pacific Coast of Guatemala Late Classic (600–900 CE) Reg. No. 1.2.144.1008
Photo: FLAAR
Ceramic bells
Maya Area Postclassic (900 CE – 1524 CE) Reg. No. 11.2.179.166
Photo: Jimmy Caal Estrada
Examples include bells, hand rattles, strings of shells, turtle shells, bone scrapers, ceramic bells and Olive shell “rattles”, as well as the reed drum known as tunkul among the Maya or teponaztli for the Aztecs.
Chordophones: These are stringed instruments.
In the Mayan area, the only surviving example might be the string drum or the “tigrera,” made from a dried gourd shell, which, when rubbed with a string, serves to attract jaguars by imitating their calls.
The era of Contact brought great social, political, and religious changes.
Music reflects much of these changes.
The era of contact with Europeans, and the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica, brought diseases that decimated the indigenous population, more destructive weaponry, exotic animals and crops, as well as a new system of government and religion. Religious, secular, and war music also arrived, along with a series of musical instruments completely unknown on the American continent and inherited by Spain from other peoples, such as the Jewish and Arab.
From being Mesoamerican peoples with a high level of cultural richness on a global scale, they went on to have their way of life and thought repressed. Since centuries of wisdom and history cannot be erased, a new mestizo population continued with their ancient traditions while assimilating the new, and this is when syncretism occurred.
Among the instruments brought by the conquistadors were wooden flutes of various sizes, ivory or wooden cornets, metal trumpets, shawms (an early oboe), French horns, sackbuts (trombones), and “bajones” (the ancestor of the bassoon). They also brought various percussion and string instruments such as Baroque guitars, violins, violas, rebecs, harps, psalteries, and the majestic organ that would become popular through beautiful concerts in the churches of the New World.
On display in this exhibition are a tun or teponaztli, a log drum, some shawms, and a small gourd guitar with beeswax from the early 20th century.
Traditional “Cobanera” Gourd Guitar
Its soundbox is half a gourd or calabash with holes arranged in sets of three.
The wooden neck is attached to the soundbox with natural beeswax.
Early to mid-20th century, Cobán and surrounding areas, Alta Verapaz.
This piece was donated by Mr. Fernando Paiz to the Kinich Museum of Musical Instruments and is now on loan for this exhibition.
The exhibition has been presented in:
Spanish Cooperation Training Center, Antigua Guatemala
(July 16, 2021 – March 28, 2022)
no images were found
Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, Guatemala City
(March 30 to May 23, 2022)
no images were found
Inter-American School, Guatemala City
(March 14 to May 30, 2023)
no images were found
Itzmania Gallery of the Lions Club of Quetzaltenango, Xelajuj Noj
(February 15 to May 24, 2024)
no images were found
LATAM Hotel, Xelajuj Noj, Quetzaltenango
(June 4, 2024, to June 6, 2025)
no images were found
References
Both, Arnd Adje. 2008.
“La música prehispánica: sonidos rituales a lo largo de la historia”. En La música prehispánica. Arqueología Mexicana, núm. 94 (noviembre–diciembre 2008). México, 28–37.
Gómez G., Luis Antonio. 2008.
“Los instrumentos musicales prehispánicos: clasificación general y significado”. En La música prehispánica. Arqueología Mexicana, núm. 94 (noviembre–diciembre 2008). México, 38–46.
Obregón Clairín, Claudio. 2012.
“El tambor de cuerda maya”. Literatura y Mundo Maya (blog), 21 de agosto de 2012. Versión digital.
Pacheco Silva, Mónica, y Gonzalo Sánchez Santiago. 2011.
“Los instrumentos musicales mayas en el Museo de Etnología de Hamburgo”. En XXV Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, editado por B. Arroyo, L. Paiz, A. Linares y A. Arroyave, 909–922. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología. Versión digital.
Rodens de Pozuelos, Vanessa. 2011.
“Un estudio arqueomusicológico de los verdaderos aerófonos procedentes del sistema cultural y natural de la Cuenca Mirador, Petén, Guatemala”. En XXV Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, editado por B. Arroyo, L. Paiz, A. Linares y A. Arroyave, 923–936. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología. Versión digital.
Rodens, Vanessa. s. f.
“Sonidos del pasado: investigaciones sobre la música maya”. Video en línea. Universidad Francisco Marroquín. https://newmedia.ufm.edu/video/sonidos-del-pasado-investigaciones-sobre-la-musica-maya/
Rodens, Vanessa, y Gonzalo Sánchez. 2014.
“Aerófonos mayas prehispánicos con mecanismo acústico poco conocido”. En Entramados sonoros de tradición mesoamericana: identidades, imágenes y contextos, editado por Francisca Zalaquett, Martha Ilia Nájera y Laura Sotelo, 51–70. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Stöckli, Matthias. 2005.
“Iconografía musical”. En XVIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, editado por J. P. Laporte, B. Arroyo y H. Mejía, 585–590. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología.
Zalaquett R., Francisca, Pablo Padilla, Roberto Carbajal, Dulce S. Espino y Ramiro Chávez. 2014.
“Estudio arqueoacústico de trompetas de caracol prehispánicas mayas”. En Entramados sonoros de tradición mesoamericana: identidades, imágenes y contextos, editado por Francisca Zalaquett, Martha Ilia Nájera y Laura Sotelo, 71–109. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
Since the beginning of September 2021, between fifty (50) and seventy (70) Pre-Columbian and early 20th-century musical instruments have been presented in the traveling exhibition ANCESTRAL SOUNDS, which has toured the departments of Guatemala, Sacatepéquez, and Quetzaltenango.
From July 25, 2025, it is open to the public at the headquarters of the La Ruta Maya Foundation in Guatemala City until the end of July 2026. With this exhibition, we began including the Kaqchikel language in the exhibition labels, highlighting the importance of the language of our ethnolinguistic region.
The collection includes whistles, ocarinas, various types of flutes, rattles, drums, conch shell trumpets, a wooden tunkul (a type of drum), polychrome vessels, molds, and clay figures of musicians, all under the care and custody of the La Ruta Maya Foundation. Also on display are polychrome vessels and figurines that allude to the performing arts or depict scenes of figures dancing or playing instruments.
It is our hope that the exhibition will travel throughout Guatemala to continue bringing the public closer to our Pre-Columbian cultural heritage, highlighting the creativity and technology involved in the manufacture and use of musical instruments.
Each display case includes QR codes that invite the public to scan to access short videos with additional information and to listen to the sound of the instruments. The foundation provides free internet access.
A. About music:
Music has always been a cultural expression shared by all ages and social classes. However, for ancient Pre-Columbian groups, including the Maya, its public manifestation occurred primarily during ceremonies or political-religious events. Public and private events attended by the nobility were enlivened with music. Musicians were very important figures in the royal court. In fact, they appear in scenes with kings and nobles in palaces, parades, and processions.
Although it’s impossible to know exactly what the original music of that era sounded like, it’s possible to intuit its sound thanks to archaeomusicology and the study of indigenous musical expressions that have survived in certain regions. Archaeomusicology (the study of ancient musical instruments) is the union of two disciplines: musicology, the study of the phenomenon of music, and archaeology, the study of humanity’s past using material remains.
Dance, as an expression intimately linked to music, is also part of the intangible performing arts. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on various sources that offer clues about musical performance in antiquity.
Some of these sources include ceramic art (scenes on painted vessels), mural paintings, codices, figurines, and the musical instruments themselves found in archaeological excavations. It is also important to examine indigenous sources and how the instruments were played, as well as to read the descriptions later made by Spanish chroniclers in this region.
A variety of images of musicians appear painted on ceramic vases and plates, as well as on multicolored murals that decorated the walls of important buildings. There are also examples carved into buildings and a variety of figurines and whistle-figures made of clay and other materials depicting musicians in action.
The Bonampak Murals (Chiapas, Mexico) depict scenes with nobles, warriors, scribes, musicians, and captives. The bottom row features richly attired musicians playing wooden trumpets, turtle shells with deer antler drumsticks, and rattles or finger cymbals.
Photo: Courtesy of Dmitri Beliaev
The musicians played all kinds of instruments, and thanks to the work of archaeologists, epigraphers, and ethnomusicologists, it has been possible to identify and classify the instruments, their materials, and even the names of the artists.
Representations of Musicians
Musician playing a conch shell trumpet
Pacific Coast of Guatemala
Late Classical (600-900)
Reg. No. 1.2.144.1005
Photo: FLAAR
Whistle figurine with two musicians playing a drum and rattle
Highlands of Guatemala
Late Classical Period (600-900)
Reg. No. 16.2.5.1111
Photo by Jimmy Caal Estrada
Musician holding a gourd rattle
Pacific Coast of Guatemala
Late Classic Period (600-900)
Reg. No. 1.2.179.64
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
B. Musical instruments were considered divine vessels
The Maya and Aztec cultures present numerous and varied archaeological evidence of sound-producing artifacts, and their music depended on the types of instruments and their period.
Religious and political events were accompanied by music and dance. Musical instruments were considered divine objects and “were used to found cities, invest rulers, name towns and people, adorn themselves, sing poetry, hold celebrations and sacrifices, go to war, and honor the dead” (Luis Antonio Gómez, 2008).
There are two important points to consider:
a. Not all artifacts were musical instruments. Many were means of communication with natural entities (such as animal-shaped artifacts that mimic their natural sounds) or with supernatural entities (nawales or companion spirits).
b. There are three types of sound communication: i) utilitarian, ii) ritual, and iii) cultural.
Indeed, while the origin of musical instruments had mythological roots, the sound of the most sacred instruments was understood as the voice of the gods. There were even ceremonies for rain or warrior processions where conch shell trumpets were the preferred instruments. In other cases, music accompanied other performing arts such as dance and poetry.
Among the most commonly used instruments were drums, trumpets, and conch shells, which were especially prevalent in royal and military processions. It is also common to see images of hunters playing conch shells while carrying their prey and warriors when leading captives. The ceremony, and the music that accompanied it, were explicitly divided between social classes because certain musical instruments and their playing (or manner of playing them) were limited to the nobility. This was because some instruments were very elaborate and therefore more expensive and difficult to acquire.
Native Mesoamerican instruments are grouped into two major sets: wind instruments and percussion instruments, which include the following families:
Aerophones: These are what we know as wind instruments because they need air to produce sound. This category includes trumpets made of various materials, conch shells shaped like trumpets, whistles, ocarinas, flutes, etc.
Whistle with bat figure
Mesoamerica
Classic Period (250-900)
No. 1.2.179.26
View video
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
Natural conch shells used as trumpets
Maya Area: Classic Period (600-900)
Photos: Jimmy Caal Estrada
Reg. No. 1.2.144.1578
View video
Reg. No. 1.2.144.1579
View video
However, it is known that the Maya also had flutes and trumpets made of wood and reeds. This category includes not only whistles, but also a wide variety of flutes and ocarinas. Ocarinas are
melodic musical instruments, meaning they have several openings (holes) that are covered with the fingers to change the notes. They can be oval (egg-shaped) or round.
Polyglobular flute
Highlands / Classic period (600-900)
Reg. No. 1.2.159.96
View video
Photo: Jimmy Caal Estrada
Ring ocarina with Maize God
Highlands / Classic period (600-900)
Reg. No. 16.2.5.963
View video
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
The polyglobular ocarina is a special type of ocarina that has several globe-shaped resonating chambers connected to each other. Each globe can have its own set of holes, allowing for a greater variety of notes and a wider musical range.
Polyglobular ocarina shaped like a dog
Classic Period (250-900) / Pacific Coast
Reg. No. 1.2.144.811
View video
Photo by Jorge Pérez de Lara
Polyglobular flute with a bird’s head
Classic period (250-900) / Lowlands, Petén
Reg. 1.2.144.1444
View video
Photo: Jimmy Caal Estrada
Ceramic flute in the shape of a snake
Pacific Coast; Late Classic (600–900)
Reg. No. 1.2.159.95
View video
Photo: FLAAR
Membranophones: those that include the stretched skin of animals to emit sound, such as most drums: arm drum, cylindrical drum and hand drum.
Ceramic drum with a face and incised decoration on the back. Leather or other tightly stretched material was placed on top, and it was held with the legs or under an arm.
Pacific Coast of Guatemala
Early Classic Period (ca. 400 CE)
Cultural Property Registry No. 1.2.1.307
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
Polychrome hand-held drum. A large, polychrome, hand-held drum with a composite silhouette, featuring a globular resonating chamber, shoulder, and a long neck or pedestal with an everted rim. It is decorated across its entire surface with 10 figures identified as musicians and dancers. It is the only drum IN THE WORLD with figures, hieroglyphic texts, and the logogram for “drum”.
Probably northern Alta Verapaz
Late Classic (600–900) / Reg. No. 1.2.179.0155
View video
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
Idiophones: these are the ones that make sound when their own body vibrates or those that emit sound when struck by something or by elements within themselves.
Wooden tunkul
Verapaces Region
Classic Period (250-900)
Reg. No. 16.2.5.181
Photo: Jorge Pérez de Lara
Ceramic rattle
Pacific Coast of Guatemala
Late Classic (600–900 CE)
Reg. No. 1.2.144.1008
Photo: FLAAR
Ceramic bells
Maya Area
Postclassic (900 CE – 1524 CE)
Reg. No. 11.2.179.166
Photo: Jimmy Caal Estrada
Examples include bells, hand rattles, strings of shells, turtle shells, bone scrapers, ceramic bells and Olive shell “rattles”, as well as the reed drum known as tunkul among the Maya or teponaztli for the Aztecs.
Chordophones: These are stringed instruments.
In the Mayan area, the only surviving example might be the string drum or the “tigrera,” made from a dried gourd shell, which, when rubbed with a string, serves to attract jaguars by imitating their calls.
The era of Contact brought great social, political, and religious changes.
Music reflects much of these changes.
The era of contact with Europeans, and the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica, brought diseases that decimated the indigenous population, more destructive weaponry, exotic animals and crops, as well as a new system of government and religion. Religious, secular, and war music also arrived, along with a series of musical instruments completely unknown on the American continent and inherited by Spain from other peoples, such as the Jewish and Arab.
From being Mesoamerican peoples with a high level of cultural richness on a global scale, they went on to have their way of life and thought repressed. Since centuries of wisdom and history cannot be erased, a new mestizo population continued with their ancient traditions while assimilating the new, and this is when syncretism occurred.
Among the instruments brought by the conquistadors were wooden flutes of various sizes, ivory or wooden cornets, metal trumpets, shawms (an early oboe), French horns, sackbuts (trombones), and “bajones” (the ancestor of the bassoon). They also brought various percussion and string instruments such as Baroque guitars, violins, violas, rebecs, harps, psalteries, and the majestic organ that would become popular through beautiful concerts in the churches of the New World.
On display in this exhibition are a tun or teponaztli, a log drum, some shawms, and a small gourd guitar with beeswax from the early 20th century.
Traditional “Cobanera” Gourd Guitar
Its soundbox is half a gourd or calabash with holes arranged in sets of three. The wooden neck is attached to the soundbox with natural beeswax. Early to mid-20th century, Cobán and surrounding areas, Alta Verapaz.
This piece was donated by Mr. Fernando Paiz to the Kinich Museum of Musical Instruments and is now on loan for this exhibition.
The exhibition has been presented in:
Spanish Cooperation Training Center, Antigua Guatemala
(July 16, 2021 – March 28, 2022)
no images were found
Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, Guatemala City
(March 30 to May 23, 2022)
no images were found
Inter-American School, Guatemala City
(March 14 to May 30, 2023)
no images were found
Itzmania Gallery of the Lions Club of Quetzaltenango, Xelajuj Noj
(February 15 to May 24, 2024)
no images were found
LATAM Hotel, Xelajuj Noj, Quetzaltenango
(June 4, 2024, to June 6, 2025)
no images were found
References
Both, Arnd Adje. 2008.
“La música prehispánica: sonidos rituales a lo largo de la historia”. En La música prehispánica. Arqueología Mexicana, núm. 94 (noviembre–diciembre 2008). México, 28–37.
Gómez G., Luis Antonio. 2008.
“Los instrumentos musicales prehispánicos: clasificación general y significado”. En La música prehispánica. Arqueología Mexicana, núm. 94 (noviembre–diciembre 2008). México, 38–46.
Obregón Clairín, Claudio. 2012.
“El tambor de cuerda maya”. Literatura y Mundo Maya (blog), 21 de agosto de 2012. Versión digital.
Pacheco Silva, Mónica, y Gonzalo Sánchez Santiago. 2011.
“Los instrumentos musicales mayas en el Museo de Etnología de Hamburgo”. En XXV Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, editado por B. Arroyo, L. Paiz, A. Linares y A. Arroyave, 909–922. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología. Versión digital.
Rodens de Pozuelos, Vanessa. 2011.
“Un estudio arqueomusicológico de los verdaderos aerófonos procedentes del sistema cultural y natural de la Cuenca Mirador, Petén, Guatemala”. En XXV Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, editado por B. Arroyo, L. Paiz, A. Linares y A. Arroyave, 923–936. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología. Versión digital.
Rodens, Vanessa. s. f.
“Sonidos del pasado: investigaciones sobre la música maya”. Video en línea. Universidad Francisco Marroquín. https://newmedia.ufm.edu/video/sonidos-del-pasado-investigaciones-sobre-la-musica-maya/
Rodens, Vanessa, y Gonzalo Sánchez. 2014.
“Aerófonos mayas prehispánicos con mecanismo acústico poco conocido”. En Entramados sonoros de tradición mesoamericana: identidades, imágenes y contextos, editado por Francisca Zalaquett, Martha Ilia Nájera y Laura Sotelo, 51–70. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Stöckli, Matthias. 2005.
“Iconografía musical”. En XVIII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, editado por J. P. Laporte, B. Arroyo y H. Mejía, 585–590. Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología.
Zalaquett R., Francisca, Pablo Padilla, Roberto Carbajal, Dulce S. Espino y Ramiro Chávez. 2014.
“Estudio arqueoacústico de trompetas de caracol prehispánicas mayas”. En Entramados sonoros de tradición mesoamericana: identidades, imágenes y contextos, editado por Francisca Zalaquett, Martha Ilia Nájera y Laura Sotelo, 71–109. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
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